The Use of Shells of Marine Molluscs in Spanish Ethnomedicine: A Historical Approach and Present and Future Perspectives.

Since ancient times, the shells of marine molluscs have been used as a therapeutic and/or prophylactic resource. In Spain, they were part of practical guides for doctors or pharmacists until the 19th century. In general, seashells were prepared by dissolving in vinegar and were part of plasters or powders used as toothpaste, or to treat dyspepsia, heartburn and leprosy. Thus, the nacre or mother-of-pearl of various molluscs was regularly used in the Royal Colleges of Surgery and in hospitals during the times of the Cortes of Cadiz, as a medicine in galenic preparations based on powders. In contemporary Spanish ethnomedicine, seashells, with a high symbolic value, have been used as an amulet to prevent cracks in the breasts and promote their development during lactation, to avoid teething pain in young children, to eliminate stains on the face or to cure erysipelas. But, as in other countries, products derived from seashells have also been empirically applied. The two resources used traditionally have been the cuttlebone, the internal shell of cuttlefish and the nacre obtained from the external shells of some species. Cuttlebone, dried and pulverised, has been applied externally to cure corneal leukoma and in dental hygiene. In the case of nacre, a distinction must be made between chemical and physical remedies. Certain seashells, macerated in lemon juice, were used in coastal areas to remove spots on the face during postpartum. However, the most common practice in Spain mainland was to dissolve mother-of-pearl buttons in lemon juice (or vinegar). The substance thus obtained has been used to treat different dermatological conditions of the face (chloasma, acne), as well as to eliminate freckles. For the extraction of foreign bodies in the eyes, a very widespread traditional remedy has been to introduce small mother-of-pearl buttons under the lid. These popular remedies and practices are compared with those collected in classic works of medicine throughout history, and data on the pharmacological activity and pharmaceutical applications of the products used are provided. The use of cuttlebone powders is supported by different works on anti-inflammatory, immune-modulatory and/or wound healing properties. Nacre powder has been used in traditional medicines to treat palpitations, convulsions or epilepsy. As sedation and a tranquilisation agent, nacre is an interesting source for further drug development. Likewise, nacre is a biomaterial for orthopaedic and other tissue bioengineering applications. This article is a historical, cultural and anthropological view that can open new epistemological paths in marine-derived product research.

The Smallpox Vaccine in Latin America: A New Approach (1801-1804).

The Royal Philanthropic Vaccine Expedition is considered in the history of medicine as the first international health expedition aimed at the global elimination of a contagious disease: smallpox. However, the initiatives carried out in this way before the arrival of the Balmis Expedition, by surgeons from the Spanish Navy, are less well known. Thus, the main objective of this research work is to offer an overview of the different anti-variolic vaccination initiatives prior to the campaign financed by the Spanish crown from these health facilities. Using the heuristic and hermeneutic method, our article is based on primary sources contrasted with specialised literature. The results obtained are presented in a narrative style from each of the surgeons identified as decisive in the implementation of the vaccine, thus providing a divergent and unpublished historiographic approach. As the facts described show, before the arrival of Balmis the vaccine substance was introduced in those countries thanks to the initiative of various surgeons: in Puerto Rico by Francisco Oller; in Cartagena and Santa Marta in Colombia by Ángel Hidalgo; in Venezuela by Alonso Ruiz; in Cuba by Tomás Romay and Bernardo de Cózar; in the Viceroyalty of New Granada (Colombia) by Lorenzo Vergés; in Guatemala by Miguel José Monzón and José María Ledesma; in the Viceroyalty of New Spain by Alejandro García Arboleya and Antonio Serrano; in Peru by Pedro Belomo; in Río de la Plata by Cristóbal Martín de Montúfar; in the Chilean region of Coquimbo by José María Gómez; and in the Philippines by Cristóbal Regidor. Finally, it should be noted that these surgeons and the approach presented are part of a historiography based on the personal actions of professionals trained, for the most part, at the Medical-Surgical School of Cadiz.

Histological Study of Glandular Variability in the Skin of the Natterjack Toad-Epidalea calamita (Laurenti, 1768)-Used in Spanish Historical Ethnoveterinary Medicine and Ethnomedicine.

Common toads have been used since ancient times for remedies and thus constitute excellent biological material for pharmacological and natural product research. According to the results of a previous analysis of the therapeutic use of amphibians in Spain, we decided to carry out a histological study that provides a complementary view of their ethnopharmacology, through the natterjack toad (Epidalea calamita). This species possesses a characteristic integument, where the parotoid glands stand out, and it has been used in different ethnoveterinary and ethnomedical practices. This histological study of their glandular variability allow us to understand the stages through which the animal synthesises and stores a heterogeneous glandular content according to the areas of the body and the functional moment of the glands. To study tegumentary cytology, a high-resolution, plastic embedding, semi-thin (1 micron) section method was applied. Up to 20 skin patches sampled from the dorsal and ventral sides were processed from the two adult specimens collected, which were roadkill. Serous/venom glands display a genetic and biochemical complexity, leading to a cocktail that remains stored (and perhaps changes over time) until extrusion, but mucous glands, working continuously to produce a surface protection layer, also produce a set of active protein (and other) substances that dissolve into mucous material, making a biologically active covering. This study provides a better understanding of the use of traditional remedies in ethnoveterinary medicine.

Relics and Historical Uses of Human Zootherapeutic Products in Contemporary Spanish Ethnoveterinary Medicine.

(1) Background: this review documents the wide repertoire of practices and remedies based on the use of human-derived products in Spanish ethnoveterinary medicine (EVM) from the early 20th century to the present. These practices are compared with historical data and those of other countries; (2) Methods: a search using advanced functions in the most important databases in the fields of ethnobiology, EVM, folklore, and ethnography was performed. Information was obtained from 29 documentary sources; (3) Results: from the search of the literature, 46 use-reports related to the veterinary use of human urine, menstrual fluid, saliva, breast milk, and faeces were recorded. These zootherapeutic resources are/were used to treat 20 animal diseases, in particular dermatological ailments. In addition, many practices of the magical-religious type are documented; (4) Conclusions: the veterinary uses described and analysed here are fundamental to the development of therapeutic tools and creating teaching and learning processes in new popular veterinary practices adapted to the users and those who demand them. The information collected could form a scientific foundation for future inventories of local veterinary knowledge (LVK) and research addressing the discovery of new drugs for livestock. This work contributes to the inventory of some uses, traditional practices, and rituals seriously threatened by the progressive loss of LVK in Europe.

The use of domestic animals and their derivative products in contemporary Spanish ethnoveterinary medicine.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: This review documents the wide and varied repertoire of traditional practices and remedies based on the use of domestic animals in Spanish ethnoveterinary medicine (EVM) from the early 20th century to the present. Empirical practices, both ritual and magical, are recorded, and these EVM data are compared with those of other countries in the Mediterranean region and Latin America. The data collected here could form a scientific foundation for future inventories of local veterinary knowledge (LVK) and research addressing the discovery of new drugs for livestock and the validation of the effects. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A qualitative systematic review of the most important databases in the fields of ethnobiology, ethnoveterinary medicine, folklore and ethnography was performed. Information and use-reports were obtained from more than 60 documentary sources. RESULTS: We recorded the use of nine domestic animal species and one hybrid (the mule) and a total of 171 empirical remedies based on the use of a single species. A wide diversity of body parts or derivative products were/are used. Fat was/is the most commonly used product, being used in 71 remedies (42%). These zootherapeutic resources were/are used to treat or prevent a total of 69 animal diseases or medical conditions, in particular dermatological, reproductive and digestive ailments, together with some infectious diseases. Sheep, cattle, goats and equines form the group of domestic animals in which the greatest number of useful species is employed. In addition, many remedies and practices of the magical-religious type are documented. In comparison with other culturally related areas, there is a greater parallelism in the animals and body parts and derivative products used, and the ailments treated. CONCLUSIONS: Contemporary Spanish EVM practices amass a great richness of domestic animal-based remedies. A diversity of body parts or derivative products has been used, offering a cultural heritage that could be a fundamental step in the discovery of new and low-cost drugs for treating livestock and alternative materials for pharmaceutical purposes, and it can contribute to the creation of new strategies for the conservation of natural resources and management of endangered species. The usage of zootherapeutic products derived from wild animals can be replaced by the use of products isolated from domestic animals. Finally, this overview contributes to the inventory of some uses, traditional practices and rituals seriously threatened by the progressive loss of LVK.

Francisco Arceo de Fregenal and the treatment of clubfoot up to the sixteenth century

The correction of clubfoot as a subject of study is somewhat unusual, especially if one considers that up until the Renaissance only two authors dealt with the subject of this inherited disorder. On the one hand is Ambroise Paré, whose contributions to traumatology and orthopaedics are staggering, and on the other, Francisco Arceo de Fregenal, also known as the Ambroise Paré of Spain. Both men developed a method for treating this condition, and a special orthopaedic shoe. So, why is it that in the Spanish literature the French surgeon was considered the pioneer in the development of an orthopaedic boot from the start and not Arceo? Why was the work of the Spaniard not studied in depth, as it deserves to be? These questions troubled us and led us to write this paper, in which as the primary objective we decided to highlight Arceo's contributions to the field of orthopaedics. Concrete arguments and works exist today that have led to common agreement among scholars of the subject that the Spanish surgeon was a Jewish convert. The social, economic and political conditions in Europe at that time may give us some idea of the difficulties for a Jewish convert in the sixteenth century, and clearly, it was difficult for a scientist to have followers who would defend his methods and technical ideas. Nevertheless, we believe that Francisco Arceo de Fregenal deserves more recognition and his work should continue to be studied in more depth.

Human urine-based therapeutics in Spain from the early 20th century to the present: a historical literature overview and a present-day case study.

Human urine is currently the subject of biomedical investigations as a potential therapeutic resource and it continues to be used in remedies in different cultures and societies, including the Spanish culture. In this study we gather etnomedical knowledge about urotherapy and determine their associated symbolisms in Spain. A literature overview and a case study were carried out to compile urine-based remedies and as a direct analysis of symbolic systems. Urotherapy is widespread in Spanish folk medicine. Among the 204 collected remedies, those related to treatment of diseases or skin conditions predominate (63%). Remedies have been reported for the treatment of skin diseases such as eczema, chloasma, alopecia, etc. to treat or alleviate burns, chilblains, wounds or skin chapping, and as a treatment of venomous bites. Most of the collected remedies have an associated naturalist symbolism, based on local traditions and the transmission of empirical initial knowledge. The use of urine in Spain is a result of the interaction of two types of practice: a local and traditional urotherapy, rural and with a utilitarian purpose, and a technical urotherapy, limited to an urban environment and a naturopathic medicine.

The therapeutic use of the dog in Spain: a review from a historical and cross-cultural perspective of a change in the human-dog relationship.

In Spain, studies about traditional knowledge related to biodiversity have focused on vascular plants. For this reason, our review concentrates on the identification and inventory of zootherapeutic resources, particularly those involving the dog (Canis lupus familiaris Linnaeus, 1758) throughout the twentieth century to the present. A qualitative systematic review in the fields of ethnomedicine, ethnozoology and folklore was made. Automated searches in the most important databases and digital libraries were performed. All related works were examined thoroughly and information was obtained from 55 documentary sources. We have listed a total of 63 remedies to treat and/or prevent 49 human illnesses and conditions. In 20 of the documented reports the whole animal was used and the use of pups was recommended in 12 cases. Saliva was the healing element in 10 remedies, and faeces were the therapeutic basis for nine, while bitch's milk was for seven of them. Skin, fur and meat were next in significance. Currently, healing remedies based on the use of the dog are not part of Spanish ethnomedicine and considering them so would be ahistorical. Indeed, the custom of allowing a dog to lick one's wounds to assist in their healing and cicatrisation has survived in only a few groups of people. However, we can state that the ethnomedical use of the dog exists and has been transferred to "animal-assisted therapy".

Plant-based remedies for wolf bites and rituals against wolves in the Iberian Peninsula: Therapeutic opportunities and cultural values for the conservation of biocultural diversity.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Combined approaches to local knowledge and folk plant use improve awareness and promote effective strategies for the conservation of significant biocultural patrimony. Moreover, the information reported might be the basis for further appropriate phytochemical and pharmacological research. Therefore we provide an insight into traditional herbal remedies and practices for healing bite injuries in humans and domestic animals caused by the Iberian wolf. Wolf bites are associated with inflammatory processes and rabies is a potential complication AIMS: This paper describes and summarises the medicinal-veterinary empirical and ritual uses of the Iberian flora for wolf injuries and reviews the ethnopharmacological data of specific plants that are already published. The Iberian wolf is a critically endangered subspecies of the grey wolf. Livestock attacks attributed to wolves are increasingly frequent in the Iberian Peninsula, resulting in serious social problems. Interesting strategies for Iberian wolf conservation might be related to traditional grazing practices that are deeply linked with empirical knowledge and local practices passed on by oral tradition, which are also vulnerable now. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Based on documentary sources from the beginning of the twentieth century to the present, we systematically searched old monographs, regional documents, technical papers, project reports, as well as the international and national databases and the available scientific literature, without restrictions regarding the language of the publications consulted. RESULTS: A total of 39 remedies for healing wolf bite injuries in humans and domestic animals was reported, highlighting the medicinal use of 33 species of vascular plants, mostly wild herbs, belonging to 18 botanical families. The use of wood ashes was also reported. The number of use-reports found represents a very high number considering similar European studies. Leaves were the predominant plant part mentioned. Boiling plant materials in water for topical uses was the most frequent method of preparation found. Some traditional remedies combined two or more plant species in order to potentiate their effects. Moreover, some plant-based traditional practices and rituals to ward off wolves and to prevent wolf attacks were also documented. In these practices eleven other species (belonging to seven more families) were used. CONCLUSIONS: Despite the decline of the Iberian wolf over the last few decades, wolves are still in the imaginary of rural communities that perceive this large carnivore as both a diabolic creature and a mythic and benign animal. Wolf-related cultural heritage is of great interest in terms of conservation strategies. This review emphasises the importance of local knowledge and provides useful information about several potential sources of phytochemicals and their claimed therapeutic effects, aiming at contributing to the conservation and appreciation of the Iberian biocultural heritage.

Therapeutic and prophylactic uses of invertebrates in contemporary Spanish ethnoveterinary medicine.

Zootherapeutic practices in ethnoveterinary medicine are important in many socio-cultural environments around the world, particularly in developing countries, and they have recently started to be inventoried and studied in Europe. In light of this, the purpose of this review is to describe the local knowledge and folk remedies based on the use of invertebrates and their derivative products in contemporary Spanish ethnoveterinary medicine. An overview in the fields of ethnozoology, ethnoveterinary medicine and folklore was made. Automated searches in the most important databases were performed. All related works were examined thoroughly and use-reports were obtained from 53 documentary sources. The traditional use of 18 invertebrate species and five ethnotaxa and a total of 86 empirical remedies based on the use of a single species was recorded. The two most relevant zoological groups were found to be insects and molluscs. A broad diversity of body parts or derivative products have been and are used to treat or prevent ca. 50 animal diseases or conditions, in particular diseases of the skin and subcutaneous tissue, different infectious livestock diseases, and disorders of the eye and adnexa. Cattle, sheep and equines form the group of domestic animals in which the greatest number of remedies are mentioned. In addition, seven magical remedies and practices are documented. In comparison with other culturally related areas, this is a rich heritage. The use-reports included here will help in the search for new and low-cost drugs for treating livestock and alternative materials for pharmaceutical purposes, future research addressing the validation of the effects and the development of organic farming.

The use of wild vertebrates in contemporary Spanish ethnoveterinary medicine.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: This review documents the wide and varied repertoire of traditional practices based on the use of wild vertebrates in Spanish ethnoveterinary medicine (EVM) from the early 20th century to the present. Empirical practices, both ritual and magical, are recorded, and these EVM data are compared with those of other countries in the Mediterranean Region and Latin America. The data collected here could form a scientific foundation for future inventories of traditional knowledge and help in the discovery of new drugs for livestock. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A qualitative systematic review of international and national databases in the fields of ethnobiology, ethnoveterinary medicine, folklore and ethnography was made. Information was obtained from more than 60 documentary sources. RESULTS: We recorded the use of 30 wild vertebrates and a total of 84 empirical remedies based on the use of a single species. The two most relevant zoological groups are reptiles and mammals. A wide diversity of body parts or products have been and are used. The meat and skin of snakes are the animal products most commonly used. These zootherapeutic resources have been and are used to treat or prevent ca. 50 animal diseases or conditions, in particular digestive and reproductive ailments, together with some infectious diseases. Sheep, cattle and equines form the group of domestic animals in which the greatest number of useful species are employed. In addition, many remedies and practices of the magical type are documented. In comparison with other culturally related areas, this is a rich heritage. CONCLUSIONS: Contemporary Spanish EVM practices amass a great richness of wild animal-based remedies. A diversity of animal parts or products have been used, offering a cultural heritage that could be a fundamental step in the discovery of new and low-cost drugs for treating livestock and alternative materials for pharmaceutical purposes. This overview contributes to the inventory of some uses and rituals seriously threatened by the progressive loss of local veterinary knowledge.

Los anfibios en la medicina popular española, la farmacopea de Plinio y el Dioscórides / Amphibians in Spanish popular medicine and the pharmacopoeia of Pliny and Dioscorides

Se presenta una lista de remedios médicos basados en el uso de anfibios en la medicina popular española y en el Mundo Clásico. Se ha llevado a cabo una revisión de la bibliografía relativa a estudios de folklore, trabajos etnográficos e investigaciones en antropología social o médica. Se documenta un total de 113 remedios y el uso de nueve especies de anfibios, dos pertenecientes a la familia de los caudados (urodelos) y siete anuros. La mayoría de los remedios se basa en la "preconcepción" popular sobre la influencia de los mismos y la sanación mediante la transmisión del mal a un ser vivo. Se destaca el uso tradicional de algunas especies amenazadas, dato a tener en cuenta a la hora de tomar decisiones en el campo de la biología de la conservación y la educación ambiental.

This article presents a list of medical remedies based on the use of amphibians in Spanish popular medicine and in the classical world. It provides an overview of bibliography relative to folklore studies, ethnographic work and research on social or medical anthropology. It documents a total of 113 remedies and the use of nine species of amphibians, two from the family of caudates (urodeles) and seven anurans. Most of these remedies are based on the popular "preconception" about the influence of amphibians and healing by transmitting an illness to a living creature. The traditional use of certain threatened species is emphasized, an issue to bear in mind in decision-making in the field of conservation biology and environmental education.

The medical use of leeches in contemporary Spain: between science and tradition.

In Spain leeches have been used both in popular and scientific medicine throughout its history. In this study we analyze the historical fluctuations of leech therapy. At the start of the 20th century it was still being used in in scientific medicine, as can be seen in the treatment administered to Germán Gamazo, a minister during the reign of Alfonso XII and the regency of Archduchess Maria Christina of Austria, during a serious illness in 1901. Leech therapy was to fall dramatically into disuse and was to survive only in folk medicine, with leeches losing their reputation as a therapeutic agent. The data obtained is the result of a systematic review of the literature and of the major databases in the fields of folklore, ethnography, social anthropology and medical anthropology. Leeches have been used in Spanish folk medicine to treat ailments and disorders in up to 11 categories of the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD-10), particularly in the treatment of diseases of the circulatory, respiratory and musculoskeletal systems. According to the available literature, they were part of the folk therapeutic arsenal, at least until the seventies of the last century. Our study also provides information about the medicinal use, commerce and consumption of these animals in recent years.

[Amphibians in Spanish popular medicine and the pharmacopoeia of Pliny and Dioscorides]. / Los anfibios en la medicina popular española, la farmacopea de Plinio y el Dioscórides.

This article presents a list of medical remedies based on the use of amphibians in Spanish popular medicine and in the classical world. It provides an overview of bibliography relative to folklore studies, ethnographic work and research on social or medical anthropology. It documents a total of 113 remedies and the use of nine species of amphibians, two from the family of caudates (urodeles) and seven anurans. Most of these remedies are based on the popular "preconception" about the influence of amphibians and healing by transmitting an illness to a living creature. The traditional use of certain threatened species is emphasized, an issue to bear in mind in decision-making in the field of conservation biology and environmental education.

Fish-based remedies in Spanish ethnomedicine: a review from a historical perspective.

BACKGROUND: Fish-based therapeutics is fundamentally based on a dietary use, but these vertebrates have also been employed in the treatment of infectious and parasitic diseases, during pregnancy, childbirth and postpartum and to deal with diseases of the different systems. METHODS: An overview of the ethnomedical and historical Spanish literature has been carried out. Automated searches in the most important national and international databases have been performed. All related works have been thorough examined. RESULTS: We examine the historical use of 54 medicinal fish species, 48 marine and six from inland waters. As useful, in Ancient times 39 species have been recorded (of which only 21 have been collected in subsequent periods), seven in the Middle Ages, 18 in Modern times and 17 in the contemporary period. Anguilla anguilla, Engraulis encrasicolus or Scyliorhinus canicula are species that have survived over time as an ingredient in Spanish folk remedies. Most remedies used in the last century and currently are empirical remedies based on the humorism theory and the principle of contraria contrariis curantur (74%), and the rest (26%) are magical type remedies that complete the popular therapeutic arsenal. CONCLUSIONS: In the last century we find a progressive decrease in the number of fish species used in ethnomedicine. Only seven taxa have been documented as surviving therapeutic resources since centuries ago. The existence of a dynamic Spanish ethnomedicine has also been detected which has managed to generate new therapeutic resources in recent times. It is important to validate the remedies by ethnopharmacology and evidence-based medicine. In order to recover as much data as possible, it will be necessary to draw up an inventory of ethnoichthyological uses.

Cases of aphasia in a work on medicine from the 16th century.

The purpose of this paper is to bring to the attention of the international community the role in the history of aphasiology of the eminent Renaissance figure, the Extremaduran Francisco Arceo de Fregenal. To present the subject, after a brief biography of this surgeon, we will trace the development of the concept of aphasia up to the 16th century. In some ancient cultures we find that this disorder was described as a "cerebral accident", to be presented subsequently in the Middle Ages as a divine punishment, only for the original idea to be taken up again during the Renaissance. This return to the concept of the early civilisations was not to lead to the formal classification of this condition however, until the studies of Broca and Wernicke were published in the 19th century. The contribution of Arceo lies in the description of clinical cases included in his book De Recta cvrandorum, which are presented in their original written version in Latin accompanied by a translation in English. The first of these cases tells of spontaneous recovery from the disease, and the second of the evolution of a patient with aphasia secondary to traumatic brain injury following surgery. Despite the great value of Arceo's report, the historical context and his professional attitude did not allow for a localisationist interpretation of the concept of aphasia.

The use of the head louse as a remedy for jaundice in Spanish folk medicine: an overview.

BACKGROUND: In Spain, head lice are considered a therapeutic resource for the treatment of jaundice. All folk remedies based on the ingestion of these insects meet in the present document, previously dispersed among a large number of references. METHODS: An overview of the Spanish literature has been carried out. The most important databases have been consulted. All related works have been examined. RESULTS: Although the method of preparation is diverse and the dose varies, the primary recommendation is a transference ritual consisting of taking nine live lice for nine days on an empty stomach without the patient's knowledge. This traditional knowledge survives in Spanish society, and constitutes an example of the interrelation between Spanish and Latin American folk medicines. CONCLUSIONS: The survival of this therapy in the worldview of certain rural communities suggests the need to take into account the beliefs, ideas and behaviour patterns of popular culture in relation to health and disease.

The scorpion in Spanish folk medicine: a review of traditional remedies for stings and its use as a therapeutic resource.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: While scorpionism is not a serious public health problem in Spain, traditional Spanish knowledge has retained a large number of plant-based and animal-based remedies for scorpion stings. Additionally, this arthropod plays an important role in the treatment of its own sting and has become a significant therapeutic resource in the treatment of several human pathologies. These remedies are distributed across a large number of references. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A thorough review of Spanish literature has been conducted in the fields of folklore, ethnography, ethnomedicine, ethnobotany, ethnozoology, social anthropology and medical anthropology from the early twentieth century to the present. Automated searches in national and international databases have been performed. RESULTS: The results include more than 110 traditional remedies for scorpion stings. Forty- eight remedies are based on the use of 29 vascular plants in 19 different botanical families. This listing of useful plants is broader than that provided by other researchers studying neighboring areas. Seventeen remedies based on the use of nine animal species, including humans, are also reported. Remedies have also been documented involving mud and water, while other remedies indicate the use of scorpions (crushed and applied directly). Many remedies emphasize the topical use of "scorpion oil" (i.e., oil from fried scorpions). Two remedies are based on the maceration of scorpions in alcohol. In most cases, topical remedies are applied locally on the affected area. There is also some use of magical remedies as well. The scorpion has also been used as a major component in 22 Spanish remedies and healing rituals associated with 17 human pathologies. CONCLUSIONS: The present study demonstrates the importance of the scorpion in Spanish folk medicine. In general, the remedies evaluated mix magic and empiricism. The data we obtained may represent relevant background knowledge for studies aimed at developing and applying new therapeutic remedies for scorpion stings and other human pathologies. The data also invites further research to determine the validity of these folk remedies.

Interactions of Valeriana officinalis L. and Passiflora incarnata L. in a patient treated with lorazepam.

There is an increasing interest in the health risks related to the use of herbal remedies. Although most consumers think that phytomedicines are safe and without side effects, interactions between complementary alternative and conventional medicines are being described. The aim of this clinical case report is to highlight the importance of the safe use of herbal remedies by providing a clinical interaction study between pharmaceutical medicines and herbal medicinal products. The case of a patient self-medicated with Valeriana officinalis L. and Passiflora incarnata L. while he was on lorazepam treatment is described. Handshaking, dizziness, throbbing and muscular fatigue were reported within the 32 h before clinical diagnosis. The analysis of family medical history ruled out essential tremor, Parkinson's disease, Wilson's disease and other symptom-related pathologies. His medical history revealed a generalized anxiety disorder and medicinal plant consumption but no neurological disorder. Appropriate physical examination was carried out. An additive or synergistic effect is suspected to have produced these symptoms. The active principles of Valerian and passionflower might increase the inhibitory activity of benzodiazepines binding to the GABA receptors, causing severe secondary effects. Due to the increase in herbal product self-medication, the use of herbal remedies should be registered while taking the personal clinical history. Multidisciplinary teams should be created to raise studies on medicinal plants with impact on medical praxis.